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75 Years of Independence: How India Fought for Freedom From The British Raj_我的网站

一 |     The British rule over India was established in 1858, a year after a massive, yet unsuccessful mutiny broke out against the British East India Company, which functioned as a sovereign power on behalf of the British Crown.,Decades of interference and economic exploitation by the East India Company resulted in mass discontent among rulers of Indian states, sepoys, zamindars (landlords), peasants, traders, artisans, and religious leaders. The discontent escalated into a violent fight led by the last Mughal emperor, Bahadur Shah Zafar-II. However, the revolt fizzled out for a number of reasons, including the lack of a single unifying motivation among the fighters.,The celebrated late historian RC Majumdar observes that between 1770 and 1857, the East India Company suppressed peasant revolts, tribal uprisings, and military revolts such as the Vellore Mutiny in 1806.,In 1858, the British Parliament liquidated the East India Company and transferred its functions to the British Crown. The British established control over half of India by ousting the rulers, and the remaining half - comprising more than 500 native princely states - chose to pledge their allegiance to the British Crown by accepting the proclamation of 1858 by Queen Victoria that assured them of the continuation of their rights under the Raj.,These native princely states covered 48 percent of the country's total land mass and accounted for 28 percent of its population. The British viewed these princely states as allies in curbing nationalist tendencies in India.,Besides these princely states, a large group of elites also sought ways to take part in the administration under the Raj. The elites raising their voice against the British Raj later became part of the Indian National Congress, which was established by British civil servant Allan Octavian Hume in 1885.,"There were two parallel movements underway against British rule. One was led by a group of elites who later became part of the Indian National Congress when it was established by AO Hume in 1885. The other was people who opposed imperialism and actively participated in various uprisings since 1770," Pawan Sharma, professor at Meerut University, told Sputnik.,Lala Lajpat Rai, who died in 1928, was a prominent freedom fighter and a member of the Hindu reform group, Arya Samaj, and joined several other extremist leaders in the belief that the Indian National Congress was a British conspiracy to be used as a buffer organization between the British government and the Indian public.,In the second half of the 19th century, nationalist sentiments were gaining momentum in Indian society, and Professor Sharma says it was linked to activities carried out by cultural and social organizations.,"Indians had lost the sense of pride over their culture, their past, under foreign rulers. After the British established their political and economic control over large parts of India, it disrupted the old way of life, including social and religious spheres. The religious people intervened to stir the consciousness of the masses and because there were hundreds of thousands of them, they had considerable impact," Professor Sharma of the Indira Gandhi National Open University (IGNOU) told Sputnik.,Professor Sharma said that the first armed rebellion against the British East India Company was carried out by monks in 1760, three years after the British won Bengal in the Battle of Plassey.,Dasnami Naga monks led the fight on several occasions, beginning in 1770, but their contribution has not been adequately documented. In 1771, 150 unarmed monks were killed under orders of British colonial administrator Warren Hastings.,"Dasnami monks participated in the uprising of 1857. In the following years, Hindu monks actively took part in various activities aimed at nation-building," Professor Sharma added.,Despite the occasional use of brutal force by the Raj, nationalist sentiments among Indians kept growing. During the First World War, the British government in India enacted a series of repressive emergency powers intended to combat subversive activities.,The turning point in India's freedom struggle came in March 1919, when the Anarchical and Revolutionary Crimes Act, 1919 - popularly known as the Rowlatt Act - was passed by the Imperial Legislative Council, giving the police sweeping powers to arrest and incarcerate anyone suspected of terrorist activities without trial for up to two years.,Protests erupted across north India, primarily in Punjab, against the act, resulting in the killing of several people on 10 April 1919. This triggered a mass peaceful protest on 13 April. In response, the British forces started firing at protesters, even as they tried to flee, killing hundreds of people in what has become known as the Jallianwala Bagh massacre. Britain still hasn't issued an apology for the massacre.,PM Modi, Rahul Gandhi Pay Tribute to Victims of 1919 Jallianwala Bagh Massacre13 April, 11:44 GMT,Jallianwala Bagh prompted Mahatma Gandhi - now referred to as the Father of the Nation - to organize his first act of large-scale civil disobedience, the Non-Cooperation Movement (1920-22), with an eye to compelling the British to grant Indians self-governance. However, the call to refuse to cooperate with the British administration was met with violence, causing Gandhi to call off the movement.,The use of force by the British sparked anger among the country's youths, resulting in the emergence of revolutionary leaders like Bhagat Singh and Chandrashekhar Azad.,On 8 April 1929, 22-year-old Singh threw a bomb at the Central Legislative Assembly at Delhi from the visitors' gallery and raised pro-revolutionary slogans.,"Revolution is an inalienable right of mankind. Freedom is an imperishable birthright of all. Labor is the real sustainer of society," said Singh, whose words inspired thousands to join the independence movement. He was hanged on 23 March 1931, along with his two revolutionary friends, in a case related to the killing of a British officer.,Sensing the public sentiments and having come under pressure from revolutionaries and extremist leaders, in 1930, the moderate Indian National Congress declared that complete independence from the British rule was the sole aim of the freedom struggle.,Gandhi launched the Salt Protest on 12 March 1930, and broke the Salt Law on 6 April 1930, 48 years after a tax was imposed on salt-making from seawater. The government arrested around 60,000 people.,The movement brought the Indian freedom struggle under the spotlight of western media. This was also the first time women took part in large numbers in the freedom struggle. The mass movement created pressure on the British rule, prompting the British to sit down at the negotiating table with Gandhi on "equal terms" and agree to several demands of the Indian National Congress, including independent elections in the provinces.,In 1936-37, under the Government of India Act 1935, the British conducted the first provincial elections in which the Indian National Congress won by majority.,The Final Battle,Britain wanted to gain India's support in the Second World War as Japan's invasion drove the British out of Burma (now Myanmar), the Philippines, Indonesia, Singapore, and Malaya (now Malaysia) by the first months of 1942. Bengal, the most industrialized province under British rule, was also at risk of an attack by Japan.,The British Crown sent the "Cripps Mission" led by Richard Stafford Cripps in March and April 1942 to obtain the crucial Indian support. However, talks between the Cripps Mission and the Indian National Congress failed as the British government proposed "dominion status" instead of complete independence for India.,The Indian National Congress leader Gandhi said that Cripps' offer of "dominion status" after the war was a "post-dated cheque drawn on a failing bank.",After the failure of the Cripps Mission, the Indian National Congress launched the "Quit India" movement and gave a call of "do or die" to the people.,The British moved swiftly to suppress the movement, arresting more than 100,000 people, including Gandhi and other political leaders. About 10,000 civilians, including women and children, were killed in police firings and baton charging.,The sentiments against the British were so strong that locals in isolated pockets like Ballia, Tamluk and Satara, among others, started forming parallel governments.,All these developments prompted the British Crown to send a mission to India which finally transferred power to Indians leading to complete Independence.,75 years after this historic event, some influential figures in India's political spectrum still believe that the remnants of British dominance continue to dictate the country's political course, which according to them, has proved counterproductive to the growth of India as a nation.,They believe that the Quit India Movement was launched in haste by the Indian National Congress with the sole intention of grabbing political influence. The movement was not thoroughly thought through nor did it intend to unify all the forces that were engaged in the battle for freedom. The movement also lacked the support of major stakeholders such as the All-India Muslim League, the Communist Party of India, and the Hindu Mahasabha.,The Muslim League pressed for the country to be partitioned according to religious lines before the British left India; however, the Communist Party vehemently opposed the movement, and the Hindu Mahasabha, an umbrella organization of Hindu nationalist forces, was not in favor of immediate mass uprising as they feared the law and order situation could spiral out of control.,"The 1942 Quit India Movement was, in fact, a mass uprising against the British rule. But was the movement in sync with the social and cultural reality of the time? Did the movement result in the country envisaged by Dr Bhimrao Ambedkar, Dr Keshav Hedgewar, Bhagat Singh, and others? The movement was aimed at merely wresting political power from the British crown," Professor Sharma says.,The same debate continues today with Hindu Nationalists, who are accused of not participating in the Quit India Movement, arguing that the movement did not entail a clear and focused strategy of "nation-building".,The Cruelty of the British,Shashi Tharoor, who penned a book 'An Era of Darkness: The British Empire in India', has accused the British of draining the country of resources.,"The British came to one of the richest countries in the world accounting for 27 percent of global GDP in 1700," he said, adding that after more than 200 years of exploitation, depredation, and destruction, India was reduced "to a poster child for Third World poverty," accounting for just above 3 percent of global GDP by the time the country gained independence.,According to Tharoor, 35 million people died under the British Raj from unnecessary famines caused by British policy.,An estimated three million people died in the Bengal famine of 1943, which Tharoor blamed on WInston Churchill's policies of "deliberately ordering the diversion of food from starving Indian civilians to well-supplied British soldiers and even to top up European stockpiles, meant for yet-to-be-liberated Greeks and Yugoslavs".,"Bodies began piling up on the sides of roads and in ponds, rivers and ditches. Vultures got too fat to take flight, and jackals feasted on still-living bodies in broad daylight," writes Professor Janam Mukherjee in his book, 'Hunger Bengal: War, Famine, Riots and the End of Empire'.。    Sophie 编译 奥克兰市长Wayne Brown宣布，新西兰铁路公司（KiwiRail）将实施一项“积极的计划”，以修复奥克兰铁路网的一段轨道。         此前，本周的高温被称导致了奥克兰火车连续三天的取消和延误。

二 |          Advertise with us          Brown与奥克兰交通局（AT）、KiwiRail、奥克兰铁路公司One Rail以及交通部长的代表举行了会议。         周三晚上，市长发表了一份声明，称会议富有成效，“进展出奇的顺利”，尽管他早些时候曾承诺在开会时“要好好训斥一顿”。         此次会议据说讨论了影响客运铁路服务的各种问题，包括高温限制、临时速度限制、与过渡到City Rail Link新信号系统有关的延误、多点故障、员工短缺以及与乘客沟通不足。         Brown说，会议的重点是采取行动来解决问题，KiwiRail将实施一项“积极的计划”，修复受高温限制影响的4.4公里铁轨段。         Brown办公室发布了以下9点计划：          在接下来的一周，KiwiRail将执行一项积极的计划，修复本周受高温限制影响的4.4公里铁轨段。这将使受到此类限制的铁轨长度减少到不到1公里，并从根本上减少对奥克兰通勤者的干扰。    One Rail将在2024年3月11日前解决人员短缺问题。

三 |     在接下来的一周，所有各方将共同努力，找到减少Britomart新信号系统造成延误的方法并进行报告。    所有各方将考虑是否需要临时调整列车时刻表，以确保提供可靠和可预测的服务，使奥克兰人对交通时刻表充满信心。

四 |     奥克兰联合铁路运营中心将于3月14日成立，所有参与奥克兰铁路网运营的各方都将一起工作，以确保所有人能够更好地共同协作。

五 |     各方已同意采取协作的方式与乘客沟通。    所有机构都清楚在City Rail Link启用前完成铁路网重建的重要性，以便获得巨大的投资收益。    AT将为铁路系统制定更好的以客户为中心的标准，了解铁路网的性能和延误对乘客的影响。    各方承诺将乘客放在第一位，持续改进，并根据需要进行整改。         市长还指出，对KiwiRail处理最近客运服务中断的审查发现，奥克兰铁路线的治理安排在几方之间“没有充分整合”。

六 |          审查报告发现，有必要建立一个协作的、一体化的治理小组，专注于提供优质的服务。

七 |          “我已经明确了我的期望，我们将在一周后再次找他们，以确保事情得到解决。我感谢奥克兰人的耐心，也期待着情况能迅速改善。

八 | ”          Brown还表示，交通部长Simeon Brown坚称一定要解决奥克兰的交通问题。         市长说：“我对部长的支持表示感谢，并期待与他共同努力，为奥克兰人提供更好的交通。

九 | ”          相关阅读：          火车频繁取消，奥克兰市长怒斥交通部门大佬：都是借口！          下午奥克兰火车将大面积取消，因为天气太热？！          奥克兰人下班回家难：海港大桥有强风，火车服务严重中断          奥克兰东部铁路线重新开放，但西线和南线马上要开始施工了          12月起奥克兰将大规模重建铁路网，火车服务中断会持续到2025年          注：本文为编译/原创，欢迎转发分享；但严禁复制等未经授权的非法使用。违反上述声明者，本网将追究其相关法律责任。使用授权请联系[email protected]。         chineseherald.co.nz All Rights Reserved 版权所有          (责编：Sophie)          相关内容                近5万养老金领取者年收入超10万纽币 部分人的“救命钱”只是他人零钱           基督城大火蔓延630公顷，大量房屋疏散，警方呼吁：不要围观妨碍灭火！           新西兰打环境官司，全世界都在看           警惕！科罗曼德尔一养老院爆发严重流感疫情，致六人死亡           奥克兰这家超市也发现老鼠！视频曝光......           新西兰政坛巨头联合发声：关于中国，请奉行独立外交政策！           新西兰这波疫情高峰过了吗？93%的感染是由于这一变种           您有一份邀请函待接收！国会议员邀您共庆龙年。

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